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Everyday Life in Saint-Malo, from the Ancien Régime to the 19th Century

Before the French Revolution, the walled town of Saint-Malo held fifteen thousand people on sixteen hectares of rock, and almost everything else follows from that: the height of the houses, the rounds of the cureur who carried the filth away, the fear of fire and of contagion. The most recent work gives fifteen to sixteen thousand inhabitants inside the walls in the 17th century, and nineteen to twenty thousand only if Saint-Servan is added in, on sixteen hectares of built ground. This page follows what that crowding left behind in ordinances, in hospitals, in dues owed to the lord and in trades.

Ten thousand people on fifteen hectares

By the middle of the 16th century Saint-Malo was already described as packed with houses and very populous. For the end of the following century, the French Ministry of Culture puts the population inside the walls at more than twenty thousand, on fewer than sixteen hectares of built ground. The figure then falls. François Lebrun has Saint-Malo drop from twenty-five thousand inhabitants around 1700 to fifteen thousand around 1790. Étienne Dupont, for his part, gives more than ten thousand inhabitants on fifteen hectares, without saying for what date.

Not all of those fifteen hectares could be lived on. The wide courtyards and gardens of the bishop's manor house, the convents and the graveyards took their share. What was left filled up with narrow streets lined by tall houses of glass and wood, where the sun seldom reached. The people of Saint-Malo held that the wind off the open sea did the work: that, they said, was their town's best répurgation, its best cleaning.

For want of room, the town spilled over. From the 17th century onwards, industry and trade left the rock for the edges of the port d'échouage, the tidal harbour where ships settled on the sand at low water. Mills and then shipyards settled along the dune ridge running from the Sillon to Rocabey; two large ropewalks were set up at the end of the century on the islets of the Talards. Saint-Servan gained from this hunger for space and took in warehouses, yards and, later, the hôpital général, the great poorhouse. From 1650 onwards the most prosperous shipowners were buying manor houses out in the country.

The hôtel d'Asfeld, a granite front with tall windows and a double-flight perron, hemmed in between two walls
The hôtel d'Asfeld, commissioned in 1725 by François Auguste Magon, a director of the Compagnie des Indes, the French East India Company: the Paris model of a house between courtyard and garden, squeezed to the size of the walled town. Illustration

Sweeping, watching, baking: what the walled town required

The town magistrates issued ordinances from time to time to clean the place up. Parents were forbidden to send their children out to relieve themselves in the streets, and the police went after anyone who made his quarter stink with the ouilles and brines, the tubs and liquor of fish-salting. No one, whatever his rank, might ease himself outdoors: every household had to keep a privy, a close stool or small heaps of sand, enough to hold out until the cureur came round, the man who carried the filth away three times a week inside the ramparts. Street names keep the rest: the rue du Point du Jour, the street of daybreak, owed its name, so it is said, to how badly it was lit, and the rue Saint-Joseph was earlier the rue des Mœurs, the street of morals.

The town guarded itself. The droit de guet et de garde, the right of watch and ward confirmed in 1374 and again in 1594, freed the townsmen from quartering the duke's troops and later the king's, and barred any outside garrison from being let in: they kept watch over their own stronghold, and the officers of the citizens' militia drew from it the custom of wearing a sword inside the walls, challenged without success in 1767. At nightfall a keeper called the chiennetier loosed a pack of dogs onto the foreshore to guard the ships sitting on the sand. The kennel moved about: under the bastion de la Hollande in 1674, then in August 1703 into a hut on the Sillon, which burned down in June 1751. The dogs were poisoned in 1770; local tradition puts that decision down to the death of a naval officer who stayed out past curfew.

The bishop and the cathedral chapter, joint lords of the town, held rights that reached into the most ordinary acts of the day. A declaration of 1667 sets out the four à ban, the lord's compulsory oven: every inhabitant was bound to bring his dough there to be baked, though anyone might keep an oven at home for his own family's bread. What was forbidden was selling that bread, and setting up as a baker without paying the yearly tax to the lordship. The fours banaux were moved next to the chapelle Saint-Aaron in 1605; others, known as the Fours du Chapitre or Grands Fours, stood at the corner of the rues Claude-Guy-Louvel and de Toulouse. The droit de fournage, the due paid for baking, was abolished by Bishop de Pressigny in 1787. The same lordship held the public weighing beam, whose name survives in a square inside the walled town, and the cohuage, a toll levied in the covered market.

The Hôtel-Dieu, the sanitat and the hôpital général

In 1507 the town had no physician, no surgeon and no apothecary. Dupont reports that Duchess Anne exempted them from taxation by edict in order to draw some in, and that the apothecary Étienne Salmon and the surgeon Pierre Chauches came and settled as a result. Charity to the sick went back much further. In 1252 Bishop Geoffroy and the chapter founded a Maison-Dieu near the chapelle Saint-Thomas, a house for the sick poor, the crippled, strangers and women in childbirth. A canon, called the prior of Saint-Thomas, ran it; in 1565 the inhabitants obtained a ruling from the Parlement, the sovereign law court, that its worldly administration should pass to two burghers appointed by the communauté de ville, the body that governed the town.

By the end of the 16th century the hospital was too small for the work. A move was under study from 1579 onwards; it came off only in 1607, on the site of the old Hôtel-Dieu, and the chapel of the new house was dedicated to Saint-Sauveur. That chapel in its turn began to fall down: the present one was begun on 1 September 1738 and blessed on 19 October 1743. The buildings burned in part in 1700, and again in 1745. The Hospitalières de Saint-Thomas de Villeneuve, a nursing order of nuns, were called in around 1687 to tend the sick there. In 1790 the house declared 12,118 livres of income against 6,112 livres of charges.

Two further establishments completed the arrangement. The sanitat, the house for those with catching diseases, stood on the Hôtel-Dieu's own ground; overwhelmed by plague victims in 1583, it was carried outside the walls onto the grève du Talard, where the chapter gave up the land for a rent of five sols as a token of dependence. In September 1680 Louis XIV granted letters patent for an hôpital général; with no premises to be had inside the walls, the communauté de ville bought the Grand-Val property in Saint-Servan and built a hospice there in 1685. Begging was expressly forbidden in Saint-Malo, Saint-Servan and Paramé. It was in that same suburb that a servant took in a blind old woman in 1839 and gave up her own bed to her: from that act came the Petites Sœurs des Pauvres, the Little Sisters of the Poor.

Being born and being cured: matrones, a birthing machine and empirics

Childbirth was watched over. An unmarried girl close to her confinement could take lodgings with a matrone, the sworn midwife of the quarter; the matrone satisfied herself that the girl could pay, then informed the authorities. A police officer would question her about how she lived and about what she meant to do with her child: someone had to be answerable for the two of them. Angélique Louvenant, a servant in a shipowner's household, presented herself in this way in 1731 to the matrone Suzanne Oger; she died soon afterwards, and a judgment of 7 September 1731 ordered the father she had named to pay the cost of her keep. When destitute women gave birth at home, the hospital's own matrone came to attend them, with lady visitors to help her.

Saint-Malo kept up a two-month course in midwifery. Étienne Dupont, citing the archives of Ille-et-Vilaine and Doctor Hervot, names Madame du Coudray as one of the women who directed it, and credits her with inventing a machine in the shape of a woman's body, into which a dummy baby was placed and then shifted from one position to the next to show the pupils how to bring it out. The machine itself is well documented elsewhere: Angélique du Coudray had it approved by the Académie de chirurgie, the academy of surgery, on 13 May 1756, obtained a royal patent in October 1759 allowing her to teach anywhere in the kingdom, and trained about five thousand women up to 1783. She left the models behind at each stop and trained demonstrators to carry the teaching on. Rennes is the Breton town the scholarly literature names among her stops; her passage through Saint-Malo rests on the local source alone.

Healers without qualifications were tolerated, and sometimes protected. An adventurer of Italian origin, Brother François Viala, practised medicine openly for three years, treating people with baths as hot as they could be made and with doses of mouse droppings. A man of standing who came to consult him was scalded until the flesh came away; the empiric, the healer without a licence, took refuge in the church, and the mayor, Picot, allowed him to practise for another year. The episode is found in Dupont alone, who gives no reference for it.

Plague from the sea: the health board and the lazaret on Cézembre

A port in constant dealings with foreign countries feared infection from outside. In 1665, when news came that plague had returned to England, three ships were ordered to cruise offshore and close the harbour to any vessel out of England, Ireland or Scotland. The bureau de santé, the port's board of health, had the power to fine a captain who broke the sanitary rules.

Isolation was carried out away from the town. The infected had first been taken in around 1583 on the grève du Talard, and the island of the Grand Bé kept two or three small buildings for convalescents and suspected cases and for airing doubtful goods, that is, spreading them out in the open. The plague at Marseille in 1720 pushed Saint-Malo into building a lazaret, a quarantine station, on Cézembre, on the site of the old convent: barracks and sheds for the sick and for merchandise. The following year the carpets and cloth of three ships in from stricken regions were burned there. The three hulls, emptied and perfumed, were towed into the harbour and sunk off the Éperon, where sea water purified them over several tides. The cargo was lost, despite the shipowners' protests; the ashes were kept, then sold in 1727 for the benefit of the Saint-Malo hospitals. The island's barracks and sheds were built to Garangeau's drawings, for seven thousand livres.

Outside the walls: the suburb, the frairies and the newcomers

Saint-Servan was not a commune but a parish, run by its conseil de fabrique, the board of churchwardens, an incomplete sort of town council holding certain municipal powers, whose two treasurers, or syndics, acted as its representatives. In June 1758 it had an army to deal with. The Duke of Marlborough landed thirteen thousand men at Cancale on 5 June; his troops burned some eighty ships in the harbour, along with a ropewalk and storehouses. On the 8th, seeing dragoons close in on two ropewalks that stood among the houses, the syndic Gilles Lecoufle went to find the general and obtained an undertaking that they would not be set on fire. Ordered to feed twenty thousand men, he furnished only eight hundred pounds of bread, cut small to suggest how poor the place was. The king had a gold medal presented to him on 15 October 1758.

From the end of the 18th century the grève des Fours à chaux was the main place where Saint-Servan's lime was burned, with six kilns at work until 1875. From 1857 two sea-bathing establishments opened on the same beach, and the villas came only after 1918. Further up the Rance, the anse de Quelmer took on its look of a row of wrecks only after a boatyard was set up there in 1968. Near the harbour, the local union federation had its maison du peuple built, a workers' hall opened in 1920 and completed with a function room in 1926.

The countryside was cut up into parishes and into frairies, subdivisions of a parish gathered around a village and around a chapel of their own. Saint-Ideuc was not a frairie but a parish: it belonged not to the bishopric of Saint-Malo that surrounded it, but to that of Dol, known for its enclaves. Made a commune in 1790, it was abolished and joined to Paramé on 7 November 1792; the parish alone was restored, by royal ordinance of 17 April 1826. These parishes also took in refugees. Deported in 1758 from the île Saint-Jean and the île Royale, now Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton in eastern Canada, about a thousand Acadian refugees came ashore at Saint-Malo between November 1758 and March 1759, and were then shared out among the parishes nearby. Saint-Suliac, which at that time included the Ville-ès-Nonais, housed several hundred of them from 1759 to 1774; the parish registers there record eighty Acadian deaths, among them twenty-six infants buried under the flagstone of the porch.

Twenty of these places in La Maplouine

The map holds more than 950 of them. Here are twenty that belong to this subject, with their commune and their category. Each one carries a full note in the map, in English and in French, geolocated and read on the spot.

La Maplouine gathers more than 950 geolocated notes across Saint-Malo, the Rance and the Clos-Poulet. It opens in Google Maps, with no account to create and no app to install, in English and in French.

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Questions La Maplouine answers

How many people lived inside the walls of Saint-Malo before the French Revolution?

It depends on the date. The French Ministry of Culture gives more than twenty thousand inhabitants inside the walls around 1700, on fewer than sixteen hectares. François Lebrun then has the town fall from twenty-five thousand inhabitants around 1700 to fifteen thousand around 1790: Saint-Malo is the one Breton town losing people in the 18th century. The figure of ten thousand inhabitants on fifteen hectares comes from Étienne Dupont, who gives it no date.

How was the walled town of Saint-Malo kept clean?

By municipal ordinances and by a collection service. Relieving oneself in the street was forbidden, as was sending children out to do it, or emptying the liquor of fish-salting there. Every house had to keep a privy, a close stool or heaps of sand. A cureur came round three times a week inside the ramparts to take the filth away. For the rest, the townspeople counted on the wind off the open sea.

Why were dogs turned loose at night in Saint-Malo?

To guard the foreshore and the ships sitting on the sand while the town slept behind closed gates. A keeper, the chiennetier, loosed the pack at curfew. The kennel changed place several times between 1674 and 1751, from the bastion de la Hollande to a hut on the Sillon. The dogs were poisoned in 1770; tradition puts that decision down to the death of a naval officer who stayed out too late.

What was a four banal, and what did it require in Saint-Malo?

It was a lord's monopoly over the baking of bread. In Saint-Malo the bishop and the chapter owned it. A declaration of 1667 spells out the obligation: inhabitants had to bring their dough there to be baked, though each might keep an oven at home for the family's own bread. What was forbidden was selling that bread. The droit de fournage, the due paid for baking, was abolished in 1787 by Bishop de Pressigny.

Where were suspect ships quarantined at Saint-Malo?

At Cézembre, an island in the bay four kilometres offshore. In 1720 the plague at Marseille brought about the building of a lazaret, a quarantine station, on the site of the old convent: barracks and sheds for the sick and for goods. The following year the cloth of three ships was burned there. The hulls were then sunk on the shallows and left open to the air over several tides before being refloated.

What became of the Acadians who landed at Saint-Malo in 1758?

About a thousand refugees came ashore at Saint-Malo between November 1758 and March 1759, and were then shared out among the parishes nearby. Saint-Suliac took in several hundred, from 1759 to 1774. Some left as early as 1765 for Belle-Île, the others in 1774 for Poitou, then for Nantes, from where a number sailed in 1785 for Louisiana.

Where did the poor of Saint-Malo go for treatment under the Ancien Régime, France before the Revolution?

To the Hôtel-Dieu, founded in 1252 for the sick poor, the crippled, strangers and women in childbirth, then moved in 1607 to the site it holds today. Those with catching diseases went to the sanitat, carried outside the walls onto the grève du Talard in 1583. From 1685 an hôpital général built at Saint-Servan took in beggars, begging being forbidden by then in all three parishes.

Read next

The malouinièresThe country houses the shipowners had built outside the walls from 1650 onwards, once the walled town could grow no further: the other face of the same crowding.History of Saint-MaloThe whole story, from the move of the bishopric out of Aleth in 1146 to the rebuilding after 1944, which sets the political and economic frame for these lives.The RanceThe river that carried the lime, the sailing barges and the Acadian refugees, with its tide mills and its sailors' villages all the way up to Dinan.
Sources for this page
  • Ministère de la Culture, Saint-Malo vers 1700, https://archeologie.culture.gouv.fr/epaves-corsaires/fr/saint-malo-vers-1700 — ville dite pressée de maisons et fort peuplée au milieu du XVIe siècle ; plus de 20 000 habitants intra-muros pour moins de 16 ha à la fin du XVIIe siècle ; sortie de l'activité hors du rocher au XVIIe siècle, moulins puis chantiers du Sillon à Rocabey, deux corderies aux Talards, croissance de Saint-Servan avec entrepôts, chantiers et hôpital général, achat de manoirs par les armateurs dès 1650.
  • François Lebrun, La démographie de la Bretagne sous l'Ancien Régime, Publications de l'EHESS, 1986, https://www.persee.fr/doc/ehess_0073-3202_1986_act_19_1_944 — Saint-Malo recule de 25 000 habitants vers 1700 à 15 000 vers 1790, Rennes plafonnant à 45 000 : seule ville bretonne en déclin au XVIIIe siècle.
  • E. Dupont, Le Vieux Saint-Malo : les rues, les remparts, les mœurs et le sanitat, repris par infobretagne, https://www.infobretagne.com/saint-malo-rues-remparts-moeurs-sanitat.htm — population supérieure à 10 000 habitants sur 15 hectares, surface réduite par le manoir épiscopal, les couvents et les cimetières, hautes maisons de verre et de bois, le vent comme répurgation ; ordonnances sur les immondices, les ouilles et saumures, latrines et chaises percées, passage du cureur trois fois la semaine ; rue du Point du Jour faiblement éclairée, rue Saint-Joseph anciennement rue des Mœurs ; chiens du guet, chiennetier, loge sous la Hollande en 1674, transfert d'août 1703 au Sillon, incendie de juin 1751, suppression en 1770 après la mort d'Ansquer de Kerouartz ; Grands Fours banaux près de Saint-Benoît et Fours du Chapitre à l'angle des rues Claude-Guy-Louvel et de Toulouse ; édit de 1507 de la duchesse Anne, Étienne Salmon et Pierre Chauches ; Hôtel-Dieu de 1252 au lieu dit le Licorne et incendie de 1745, pots de pharmacie ; surveillance des naissances, Angélique Louvenant, la matrone Suzanne Oger et le jugement du 7 septembre 1731 ; cours d'accouchement de deux mois et machine de Mme du Coudray, d'après les Archives d'Ille-et-Vilaine 1326-1327 citées par le docteur Hervot ; frère François Viala et le maire Picot ; bureau de santé, trois bateaux visiteurs de 1665, casernes et hangars de Cézembre, navires coulés devant l'Éperon, argent fondu attribué à l'Hôtel-Dieu, projet du Grand Bé et Talards vers 1583 ; enseigne de cabaret À la Malice ; rue du Pressoir ou de la Pie qui boit devenue rue Thévenard.
  • Guillotin de Corson, Pouillé de Rennes, et abbé Manet, repris par infobretagne, La ville de Saint-Malo, https://www.infobretagne.com/saint-malo.htm — seigneurie commune de l'évêque et du chapitre : poids publics, cohuage, droit de pêcheries et de sécheries, fours et moulins banaux, droit de fournage aboli par Mgr de Pressigny en 1787, définition du four à ban en 1667 (obligation d'y porter sa pâte, four domestique autorisé pour le pain de famille, interdiction de vendre ce pain) ; transfert des fours banaux près de la chapelle Saint-Aaron en 1605 ; fondation de l'Hôtel-Dieu en 1252 par l'évêque Geoffroy et le chapitre, dîmes de Broons et dix mines de froment, prieur de Saint-Thomas, arrêt de 1565 confiant le temporel à deux bourgeois, transfert étudié dès 1579 et abouti en 1607, chapelle Saint-Sauveur (première pierre le 1er septembre 1738, bénédiction le 19 octobre 1743), incendies de 1700 et 1745, Hospitalières de Saint-Thomas de Villeneuve appelées vers 1687 et chassées en 1794, revenus déclarés en 1790 ; sanitat encombré en 1583 et transporté sur la grève du Talard, terrain donné par le chapitre en 1583 et 1585 contre cinq sols de rente, repris par l'Hôpital-Général en 1707 ; lettres patentes de Louis XIV de septembre 1680, achat du Grand-Val en Saint-Servan et hospice de 1685, chapelle Saint-Yves 1713-1724, interdiction de mendier à Saint-Malo, Saint-Servan et Paramé ; droit de guet et de garde confirmé en 1374 et 1594, port de l'épée contesté en 1767.
  • Wikipédia FR, Cézembre, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cézembre (d'après Gilles Foucqueron, Saint-Malo, 2000 ans d'histoire) — bâtiments de quarantaine construits en 1720 sur l'emplacement de l'ancien couvent en réponse à la peste de Marseille ; tapis et étoffes de trois navires brûlés l'année suivante ; navires coulés sur des hauts-fonds pour y être éventés pendant plusieurs marées avant renflouement.
  • Hélène Gestern, Chronologie de Cézembre d'après Vera Kornicker et Philippe Delacotte, http://www.helene-gestern.net/chronologie-cezembre/ — bâtiments militaires de l'île transformés en lazaret de 1720 à 1736 pour la mise en quarantaine des équipages de retour d'Inde.
  • Wikipédia FR, Angélique du Coudray, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angélique_du_Coudray — machine approuvée par l'Académie de chirurgie le 13 mai 1756, brevet royal d'octobre 1759 autorisant l'enseignement dans tout le royaume et la délivrance de brevets d'exercice, second brevet et pension en 1768, tournée de 1759 à 1783, plus de 5 000 femmes formées, villes citées dont Rennes ; description de la machine et de l'enfant articulé.
  • Emmanuelle Berthiaud, Former les sages-femmes à l'accouchement, Encyclopédie d'histoire numérique de l'Europe, https://ehne.fr/fr/node/22735 — cours itinérants de six à huit semaines, mannequins laissés sur place et démonstrateurs formés pour assurer la continuité de l'enseignement, coût du matériel et prise en charge par les autorités locales.
  • Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel, Quartier de la Grève des fours à chaux (Saint-Malo), dossier IA35000232, https://patrimoine.bzh/gertrude-diffusion/dossier/IA35000232 — principal centre de transformation de la chaux de Saint-Servan à partir de la fin du XVIIIe siècle, six fours en activité jusqu'en 1875, deux établissements de bains de mer dès 1857 (daté par source), villas au lendemain de la Première Guerre mondiale, hôpital du Rosais fondé au milieu du XVIIIe siècle dans un quartier volontairement excentré.
  • Arthur de la Borderie, Les Anglais à Saint-Servan en juin 1758, d'après la Relation imprimée de Gilles Lecoufle et la Relation inédite du chevalier Mazin, repris par infobretagne, https://www.infobretagne.com/saint-malo-servan-expedition-anglaise.htm — flotte de 115 voiles le 4 juin, débarquement de 13 000 hommes à Cancale le 5 juin, Saint-Servan paroisse et non municipalité administrée par le conseil de fabrique et ses deux trésoriers ou syndics, incendies des 7 et 8 juin, intervention de Lecoufle auprès du duc de Marlborough pour sauver deux corderies, 800 livres de pain coupé menu, enquête des États de Bretagne évaluant les dommages de juin à 3 363 000 livres contre 550 000 en septembre, médaille d'or remise le 15 octobre 1758 à l'hôtel de ville de Saint-Malo.
  • Association du Patrimoine de Saint-Suliac, Acadiens d'hier et d'aujourd'hui à Saint-Suliac, https://patrimoine-saintsuliac.com/?page_id=911 — environ 2 000 survivants débarqués à Saint-Malo en 1758 et accueillis dans 36 paroisses de la vallée de la Rance, 111 familles et environ 380 personnes à Saint-Suliac de 1759 à 1774, aucun mariage avec les Suliaçais, 80 morts acadiens et 26 enfants en bas âge inhumés sous la dalle du porche, départs pour Belle-Île en 1765 et le Poitou en 1774, puis Nantes et la Louisiane en 1785.
  • Abbé A. Leroy, La paroisse de Saint-Ideuc, repris par infobretagne, https://www.infobretagne.com/saint-ideuc-paroisse.htm, et Wikipédia FR, Saint-Ideuc, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Ideuc — paroisse dépendant du diocèse de Dol et du doyenné de Bobital, enclavée dans le diocèse de Saint-Malo ; commune en 1790, supprimée et réunie à Paramé par décret du département du 7 novembre 1792 ; paroisse rétablie par ordonnance royale du 17 avril 1826, la commune jamais.
  • Wikipédia FR, Frairie, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frairie — définition de la frairie comme subdivision de paroisse apparue au Moyen Âge, groupée autour du village principal et le plus souvent d'une chapelle dite frairienne, très fréquente dans le duché de Bretagne.
  • DRAC Bretagne, Conservation régionale des monuments historiques, Maison du peuple de Saint-Malo, https://www.culture.gouv.fr/content/download/58559/file/2011_35_St-Malo_maison-peuple.pdf — 13 avenue Jean Jaurès, inscription au titre des monuments historiques par arrêté du 16 novembre 2011, plans établis en 1910 par Edmond-Eugène Mantrand, pavillon inauguré en 1920, salle des fêtes achevée en 1926, l'un des très rares exemples conservés en Bretagne.
  • Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel, Cimetière de bateaux, Quelmer (Saint-Malo), notice IA35132824, https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/IA35132824 — le cimetière de bateaux ne préexistait pas à l'installation d'un chantier naval dans l'anse en 1968.
  • Petites Sœurs des Pauvres, Sainte Jeanne Jugan, https://petitessoeursdespauvres.org/nous-connaitre/sainte-jeanne-jugan/ — accueil de la première pensionnaire à Saint-Servan en 1839, canonisation par Benoît XVI le 11 octobre 2009.
  • Audit contradictoire du 6 août 2026 : la page a été relue par un auditeur chargé d'y chercher ce qui est faux, puis les corrections introduisant un chiffre neuf ont été soumises à un second lecteur chargé de les réfuter. Les corrections réfutées n'ont pas été appliquées.